Copernicus~ (1473-1543)
- set forth the "heliocentric" theory of the universe
- worked on this hypothesis from 1506-1530
- didn't publish his book On the Revolution of the HeavenlySpheres until 1543 (the year that he died)
- his theory "put the stars at rest", destroying theidea of crystal spheres capable of moving the stars around the earth, thussuggesting a universe of "staggering size" which was separated fromthe heavenly earth...so where does god live?

"On the Revolution of Celestial Orbs"
- book written by Copernicus which was published in 1543, the yearof his death
- caused great disturbances due to the conflicting ideas of thetime


TychoBrahe 1546-1601 Danishastronomer. The most prominent astronomer of the late 16th cent., he paved theway for future discoveries by improving instruments and by his precision infixing the positions of planets and stars. From Brahe's exact observations ofthe planets, Kepler devised his laws of planetary motions. Brahe's achievementsincluded the study of a supernova and the discoveries of a variation in theinclination of the lunar orbit and of the fourth inequality of the moon'smotion.

Johannes Kepler 1571-1630 Brahe's assistant. Kepler came from a nobleGerman Family. He compiled Brahe's work to form 3 laws of planetary motion.
-planets follow elliptical orbits
-they do not travel at uniformed speeds
-orbit time is relative to distance from the sun
Kepler proved that the earth is the center of the galaxy


Galilei Galileo- 1564-1642, he was an Italian
scientist who is regarded as the chief founder of
modern science. he discovered craters on the moon and
the moons of jupiter. also, he observed the phases of
venus, doing all this because he improved the
refracting telescope. he also developed these laws:
the law of uniformily accelerated motion towards the
earth, the parabolic path of projectiles, and the law
that all bodies have weight.
Pope Urban VIII- 1568-1644 he served as papal legate
to the court of henri IV the king of france. he became
archbishop of nazareth in 1604, he also took up the
post of papal nuncio to the french king. he was made a
cardinal with the titular church of st peter in
montorio in 1606. upon the death of pope gregory XV in
1623, he was elected pope and took the name of urban
VIII. he prohibited slavery amoung the indians of
brazil paraguay and the west indies, he also supported
the anti hapsburg policy of the french neglecting to
support the catholic cause in germany. he also
supported galileo.


Isaac Newton - English physicist, mathematician, and naturalphilosopher,
considered one of the most important scientists of all time. Newton
formulated laws of gravitation that explained how objects move on Earth as
well as through the heavens (space). He established the modern study of
optics (the behavior of light) and built the first reflecting telescope. He
invented the area of mathematics called calculus.




Principia Mathmatica - Newton's first book (formerly titled the Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica). The scientific community hailed it as a
masterpiece, although Newton had intentionally made the book difficult "to
avoid being baited by little smatterers in mathematics." The book wasabout
the idea of gravitation and how it had effect on the entire solar system.




Gresham College- Center of science in England for the 1st half ofthe 17th
century, help the foundation of the Royal society of London. Combined
science with practicle things like ship building.

Royal society of London- A society of philosophers and scientists in England
and a place where they could talk and form ideas.

Francis Bacon - English philosopher, essayist, and statesman. Hewas
born in London, England. With the succession of James I, Bacon?s
fortunes improved. He was knighted in 1603. He wrote the Instauratio
Magna, but completed only two parts, The Advancement of Learning (1605),
later expanded in Latin as De Augmentis Scientiarum (1623), and the
Novum Organum (1620). Bacon?s contribution to philosophy was his
application of the inductive method of modern science. His Essays are
his best known writings.

Descartes, Ren - French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist.
Descartes? methodology was a major influence in the transition from
medieval science and philosophy to the modern era. There is one thing
that cannot be doubted: doubt itself. This is the kernel expressed in
his famous phrase, Cogito, ergo sum [I think, therefore I am].
Mathematics was his greatest interest; building upon the work of others,
he originated the Cartesian coordinates and Cartesian curves; he is
often said to be the founder of analytical geometry.


John Locke~wrote Essay Concerning Human Nature; believed that all ideas are
derived from
experience, and that the human mind at birth is like a blank slate on which
the enironment writes
the individual?s understandings and beliefs---?tabula rasa?; also wrote the
Second Treatise on
Civil Government

Essay Concerning Human Nature~one of the dominant intellectual inspirations
of the
Enlightenment; idea of tabula rasa; published in 1690; rejected the views of
Descartes


Montesquieu~ (1689-1755) Hisreal name was Baron de la
Brede et de Montesquieu. He was known as the first
great French man of the Enlightenment. His best work
was the "Spirit of Laws." He developed the political
theory of checks and balancs which was an important
part of the American Constitution.

Voltaire~ (1694-1778) His real name was Francois Marie
Arouet. He attacked political institutions using
witty prosem which get him exiled. He was moved to
France, and wrote manty philosophical treatises there.
The he was invited to move to Berlin by king
Frederick, and then wrote Candide...a satire against
social wrongs. The story Candide brought out the
french revolution.


Diderot: He wasa French man of letters and a philosopher. He was educated by Jusuits,and later received degrees from the Univ. of Paris. He worked as aneditor of an Encyclopedia, which was a principal work of theEnlightenment. He wrote a Letter on the Deaf and the Dumb in 1751, andThoughts on the Interpretation of Nature in 1754. He was one of the firstgreat art critics. He also wrote novels which include The Nun andRameau's Nephew, as well as many works on drama.

Rousseau: He was a French-Swiss man. He was a writer, and he wrote the SocialContract in 1762. It argued that if a civil society, or state, could bebased on a genuine social contract, people would receive in exchange for theirnatural independence a better kind of freedom. This work became the basictext of the French Revolution. He began showing signs of mentalinstability and died insane.



Warof Austrian Succession: (1740-1748) The Pragmatic Sanction had guaranteed MariaTheresa's succession to the Austrian throne. Frederick the Great violated thesanction when he invaded the Austrian province of Silesia and took it fromMaria Theresa, which was a great loss to her country. The War of AustrianSuccession also expanded, turning into a world war for empire between Franceand Britain. The war brought financial crisis to France.
7Years' War:(1756-1763) Maria Theresa was determined to regain Silesia and she formed analliance w/ France and Russia. The alliance's goal was to conquer Prussia anddivide up its territory. Frederick the Great fought courageously for his empireand was eventually saved when Peter III came to the Russian throne and calledoff the attack on Prussia b/c he greatly admired Frederick. The 7 Years' Warchanged Frederick's views and he created more humane policies for his subjectsto strengthen the state. France again had a financial crisis after the 7 Years'War.


St Petersburg - Began as asmall fort in 1702 and grew into the Russian
capital and Peter's "window on Europe" by 1709. Peasantswere forced to
buiold it and the maerchants, artisans and nobles were forced to live there.
By 1782 it was one of the largest cities in the world.

Versailles - Once a royal hunting lounge, change began in 1661 by Louis XIV
to make it the royal palace. In 1668 a huge garden was added and andother
buildings that were centered around that. The third and largest phase was
started in 1678 with 10,000 men and was completed by 1688. The palace
throne was ordered to be moved their in 1682


Louis XIV was calledthe Grand Monarch or Sun King. His 72-year reign was the longest in modernEuropean history. During his childhood France was ruled by Cardinal Mazarin. In1660 Louis married Maria Theresa, the daughter of Philip IV of Spain. In 1661he assumed sole responsibility for government. He initiated an aggressiveforeign, particularly against the Dutch; but his major political rivals werethe Austrian Habsburgs.

LouisXVI, 1754-1793.
King of France (1774-1792). In 1789 he summoned the Estates-General, but he didnot grant the reforms that were demanded and revolution followed. Louis and hisqueen, Marie Antoinette, were executed in 1793.


Benardde Fontenelle -
-Frenchwriter and scientist.
-wrotedramas, operas, dialogues, short stories and dissertions on science.
-Entretienssur la pluralit des mondes, he wrote on the astronomicalprinciples of the Copernican system in literary form. In some of his otherwritings he attacked religious superstition. Fontenelle's questioning attitudewas a good example of the enlightenment.

PierreBayle -
-frenchphilospher and critic
-hiswork strongly advocated freedom of thought on all subject(You would have neverguessed it, The Enlightenment)


Joseph II and Serfdom- Holy Roman Emporer Joseph IIinstituted many reforms during his reign from 1765 to 1790, including freeingthe serfs, ending discrimination laws against Jews, and reorganizing theCatholic Church.

MariaTheresa- Succeededher father Charles VI and became ruler of Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary. Many European monarchs chose not to recognize her succession because she wasnot a male heir. She spent most of her 40-year reign defending her rightot rule.


Catherinethe Great - ruler of Russia, she studies Voltaire and Boyle, to gain power shehas her boyfriend kill her husband. She westernizes the Russian noblilitythinking by importing painters, architects, sculptors and intellectualsinto Russia. She makes small reforms in law, and education and has somereligious toleration. But, the Pugachev serf rebellions end any thought offreeing the serfs. Finally she also continued the expansionist policy and gainedmuch new territory for Russia.


Aristotle- Greek philosopher from the fourthcentury B.C. He developed the geocentric theory. According to the geocentrictheory, a fixed earth sat at the center of the universe with eight rotatingspheres revolving around it. The eight spheres were the sun, moon, five knownplanets, and the fixed star. Two spheres were added later during the middleages to account for the slight change in the positions of stars over thecenturies.

Ptolemy- Lived in Alexandria during the second century A.D. He was the last ofthe great astronomers that came before Copernicus . Worked out complicatedrules to explain minor irregularities in the movement of the planets.


Pugachev - Emelian Pugachev was a Cossack soldier who started agiantic uprising of serfs, much as Stenka Razin had done. He claimedto be the true tsar, he issued decrees abloishibg serfdom, taxes, and armyservice. Thousands joined him as they killed landlords and officials insouthwestern Russia. Pugachev's untrained hordes were no match forCatherine's noble-led regular army. Pugachev was captured andsavagely executed. Pugachev's rebellion was a turning point in Catherine'sdomestic policy.